SPECIAL ARTICLE
NEONATAL CIRCUMCISION: A CURRENT APPRAISAL
Thomas E.
Wiswell, M.D., F.A.A.P.
Professor
of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology,
Permission: Mosby-Year Book, Inc., Focus
& Opinions: Pediatrics, Volume 1, number 2, 1995.
Introduction
Neonatal circumcision is one of the most commonly performed
surgical procedures in the
Circumcision Frequency Rate
It is difficult to find accurate data regarding the
circumcision frequency rate (CFR) among neonates and older males in the
I have been fortunate to have access to the comprehensive
database of the
I believe this database information to be the most accurate available
reflecting the CFR, and it may best approximate true
CFR trends in the
Urinary Tract Infections
The first reports linking UTI and the uncircumcised state
appeared in the 1980s (8,11,12). However, the 1989 AAP
task force report concluded this evidence was only preliminary (4). Subsequent
to the 1989 statement, numerous other studies have appeared linking the the
presence of a prepuce to UTI (at least 11 total publications) (7,13). A meta-analysis of the published reports found at
least a 12-fold increased risk for UTI among uncircumcised male infants. The
risk is also increased among male children between 1 and 16 years of age (13)
and adult males (14). There are no contrary data. Urinary tract infections are
not benign. A high proportion of infants may have concomitant bacteremia (11,15), whereas renal scarring and its sequelae are not
uncommon (16).
Penile Cancer
Circumcision categorically prevents penile
cancer. Of approximately 50,000 men with cancer of the penis from 1932 through
1986, only 10 were known to have been circumcised as newborns (17). Recent
reports confirm the relationship between this malignancy and the presence of
the prepuce (18,19). Opponents of the procedure claim
the incidence of this malignancy is too rare to be of concern, claiming an
incidence in the
Cervical Cancer
Epidemiologic evidence links cervical cancer and the
uncircumcised status of the affected woman's primary partner (22-24).
Furthermore, HPV has similarly been linked to the development of cervical
cancer. The latter virus is sexually transmitted. The interaction between HPV,
an intact foreskin, and the two malignancies (penile and cervical cancer) is an
intriguing one. There is ongoing research evaluating these relationships.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Similar to HPV, virtually every sexually transmitted
disease (STD) has been found to be more common among uncircumcised men
(26-30).Moreover, reports during the past 6 years have revealed a 5- to 10-fold
increased risk for HIV conversion among uncircumcised men (31-37). Theories
(27) regarding the increased risk for STDs include: trauma of the intact
foreskin or frenulum during intercourse causing microabrasions that facilitate
infection; a more "hospitable" environment under the prepuce
conducive to survival and multiplication of organisms causing STDs; a
relatively "thinner" epithelium on the glans of uncircumcised men may
represent less of a physical barrier; and acute or chronic balanitis (rare in
circumcised men) may predispose to STDs.
An additional possible mechanism for HIV infection relates
to the presence of a high concentration of Langerhans cells in the human
prepuce (35, 38). These are intraepithelial cells that are a component of the
immune system. These cells are known to be target cells for simian
immunodeficiency virus (39) and may play a similar role in human HIV infection.
Weiss et al, (38) speculate about the role of Langerhans cells in the
pathophysiology of penile cancer.
Balanitis, Posthitis and Phimosis
Balanitis and posthitis are exquisitely painful infections
that are virtually limited to uncircumcised males (15, 40-43, 46). Chronic
balanoposthitis may result in scarring, which can cause a secondary phimosis
(42, 44). Pathologic phimosis may result in acute urinary retention,
vesicoureteral reflux, and hypertension (45). Although conservative medical
therapy may be used for these disorders, they frequently recur and ultimately necessitate
removal of the prepuce (42, 43).
Other Issues in Uncircumcised Males
There are other problems uniquely associated with the
uncircumcised state. Uncircumcised boys may catch and entrap their foreskin in
the process of zipping or unzipping their clothes. Considerable trauma,
swelling, and scarring of the injured prepuce may result. This painful
predicament typically is managed by circumcision. However, Nolan et al,(47) have recommended the use of a heavy bone cutter or
wire snippers to cut the bars of the zipper to release the foreskin.
Nursing home caregivers have stated that uncircumcised
elderly men have more problems with infection and pain (from balanoposthitis,
phimosis, and paraphimosis) than their circumcised peers (48). Moreover, it is
more difficult to achieve optimal hygiene among gentlemen who have prepuces.
Boys and men with foreskins often do not retract the tissue
during micturition (R.Jarrett and A.Fink, personal communications as well as my
personal experience). The resultant "splatter" phenomenon typically
leads to urine all over the toilet and floor, rather than into the toilet.
Although this process generally does not bother men, the women (mothers and
partners) who clean up after them are often enraged.
There are no scientific data substantiating that
circumcised males have any long-term problems compared with their uncircumcised
peers (e.g., psychological, social, emotional, sexual function, or sexual
pleasure). By contrast, there may be psychosocial effects from being uncircumcised.
Schlossberger et al, (49) recently have found that uncircumcised adolescent
boys were more likely to be dissatisfied with their circumcision status than
their circumcised colleagues. Moreover, in July 1994 at an institution
affiliated with my university, a 14 year old boy was admitted with bleeding and
other complications after he performed a "self circumcision." The
child apparently had grown tired of being ridiculed by schoolmates because he
had a prepuce. He tried to resolve the issue of the tissue himself.
Risks, Benefits, and Informed Consent
Counseling
Informed consent concerns a patient's rights of
self-determination for medical or surgical treatment. The ability to make
medical decisions requires the intellectual and emotional capacity to
understand risks and benefits. Parents are the logical surrogates to give proxy
consent for their children. Parents have the legal right to authorize
medical care and treatment for their children, including surgical procedures.
It has never been otherwise. The overriding bioethical principle is to act in
the childs best interest. Thus, parents may only give
proxy consent for interventions they believe will further the childs
well-being. For them to make such a decision they need unbiased, full
disclosure of information.
For any type of informed consent (including circumcision),
patients (or parents) need to be told in comprehensive language the
nature and purpose of the treatment, the risks and the benefits
of such therapy, prognosis if treatment is declined, and any alternative
methods of therapy. The counseling physician is required to disclose all
information that any reasonable physician would disclose under similar
circumstances, as well as all information that a reasonable patient (or parent)
might want to know. The information must be objective, not subjective, in
nature.
Inspired by the anticircumcision movement, I am aware of a
handful of lawsuits filed by the families of circumcised boys
years after the procedure. The family claims that the child did not give his
personal informed consent (although the parents gave theirs before the
procedure). The plaintiffs have invariably lost cases in which the parents gave
their informed consent as legal proxies at the time of the original counseling.
The fact that they apparently changed their minds later does not change the
fact that their original consent was legally binding.
What specific risks and benefits of neonatal circumcision
do I include during informed consent counseling? I have combined data from many
resources to come up with reasonable approximations that I quote to the
parents. These estimates of potential risks and benefits are presented in
Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1.-Risks of Neonatal Circumcision
-Subsequent surgery is needed in approximately 1 per 1,000
boys. This is typically for skin bridges or for having too much or too little
foreskin removed.
Note: Estimates were compiled from myriad
resources.
*Information from Schoen EJ, Aderson G, Bohon C, et al: Pediatrics 84:388-391,
1989.
(Courtesy of Dr. Wiswell.)
Table 2.-Benefits of Neonatal Circumcision
Note: Estimates were compiled from myriad
resources. All rates are substantially higher than in circumcised individuals. (Courtesy of Dr. Wiswell.)
Devices
The most commonly used devices for neonatal circumcision
are the GOMCO clamp, the MOGEN clamp, and the PlastiBell. To date, there are no
scientific data demonstrating that any of these are the best method. My advice
for the health care professional who performs circumcisions is to become
competent with one of these instruments and only use that one.
Best Time in Life to Perform Circumcision
I conclude that the best time to perform the procedure is
during the neonatal period. The child will not need ligatures or general
anesthesia, nor will the boy need additional hospitalization. The pain lasts,
at most, for 12-24 hours. The complication rate is low at 0.2% (15), and there
is no evidence the child remembers the procedure. The cost is low
(approximately $100-$150). Older children (aged 4 months to 15 years) usually
have general anesthesia (with its own attendant risks) and require ligatures
(9). The child is often hospitalized overnight. There may be substantial
complications (9), although their occurrence is infrequent (1.7%). The
postoperative pain lasts for days, and the children older than 1-2 years may
remember the incident. It is more expensive to circumcise an older child
(approximately $1000). In adults, ligatures are used and overnight
hospitalization generally is required (although occasionally it is performed on
an outpatient basis). The procedure may be performed under local or general
anesthesia ( the latter is still most commonly used).
The frequency of complications is unknown. Adult males are typically
"laid-up" for at least a week and miss work or school for this
period. The pain generally lasts for 1-2 weeks, and the procedure is more
expensive in adults (at least $2000-$4000).
A More "Humane" Approach
A child generally is tightly strapped down flat on a
"papoose board" while undergoing neonatal circumcision
. A more "humane" approach would be to bind the infant more
loosely to swaddle and ensure warmth. A pacifier should be provided (the act of
suckling may provide antinociception). I am intrigued by the restraint system
recently invented by pediatrician, Dr. Howard J. Stang. In my experience using
this apparatus, children seem to be more comfortable while undergoing the
procedure. I believe all boys undergoing circumcision should receive analgesia,
a topic I will discuss next.
Analgesia
Children experience pain during
circumcision and for the first few hours afterward (50-52). They react
appropriately with behavioral, physiologic, and hormonal changes. Historically,
however, the procedure has been performed with little attention to pain
alleviation. Nonetheless,
Personally, I have good success with the most widely used method of analgesia,
the dorsal penile nerve block (54-56). In my experience during the past decade,
approximately 80% of boys achieve good analgesia. Complications from nerve
block are rare. Ryan and Finer (56) quote a series of more than 3,800 boys
undergoing the procedure, none of whom had serious complications. A
spontaneously resolving hematoma at the site of anesthetic injection is the
only commonly seen sequela.
General anasthesia and
systemically administered narcotics may be associated with devastating side
effects and should be avoided in neonates. Oral ethanol is the most commonly
used analgesic in
Howard and colleagues (57) recently reported a study of acetaminophen for
analgesia before and after neonatal circumcision. Acetaminophen was not found
to ameliorate either the intraoperative or the immediate postoperative pain of
circumcision.
Masciello (58) described the use of local infiltration of lidocaine into the
prepuce at the level of the corona of the glans penis. Although it appeared to
be efficacious, only 10 patients were studied. Blass and Hoffmeyer (59) noted a
sucrose-flavored pacifier to reduce crying time during circumcision in a small
number of children. Finally, Weatherstone et al,(65)
as well as Benini and colleagues (61) recently examined the use of topical
anasthetic creams (30% lidocaine and EMLA, respectively) in relatively small
numbers of newborns. Both groups of investigators found these creams to provide
some degree of analgesia. The preliminary work regarding the different methods
of analgesia mentioned in this paragraph warrant further investigation.
Hygiene
The 1975 Ad Hoc Task Force on Circumcision stated that
"... good personal hygiene would offer all the advantages or routine
circumcision without the attendant surgical risk" (2). Many have
interpreted this statement as meaning that lifelong dedication to
"optimal" penile hygiene would serve equally well to prevent penile
cancer, balanitis, UTIs, STDs, etc. The statement sounds reasonable.
Nonetheless, it is only a conjecture. There are absolutely no published
investigations to support it. Although I certainly support a commitment to
adequate genital cleaning in uncircumcised individuals, I cannot yet say that
it will mitigate or prevent any of the aforementioned disorders, even to a
small extent.
Claims of Anti-Circumcision Groups
At the height of the anti-circumcision sentiment during the
early 1980's formal groups opposed to the procedure were formed. These incude BUFF (Brotherhood United for Future Foreskins).
INTACT (Infants Need To Avoid Circumcision Trauma), and the largest
organization, NOCIRC (National Organization of
There is no scientific foundation for any of these claims or for the myriad
other assertions of these organizations. The groups attempt to support their
conjectures with a handful of testimonials.
Foreskin restoration
If a circumcised man feels naked without a prepuce, there
are several suggested methods to attempt restoration.The most radical of these
is a multistaged surgical procedure (62) in which the penile shaft is denuded
of skin, which is pushed forward to create a new foreskin. The denuded penis is
surgically buried in the scrotum. Months later, "Z-plasty" is
performed and scrotal skin is used to form the penile shaft skin. I am aware of
other types of attempting foreskin restoration that are variants of stretching
the penile shaft skin forward by means of tape, cones, or weights (known as
"foreballs"). There are no scientific data concerning the success of
these latter methods.
Summary
The many issues surrounding neonatal circumcision are
complex and controversial. A great deal of information concerning the subject
has been published during the past 10 years. Pediatricians generally deal more
with the untoward complications of circumcision (bleeding, infection, etc.)
than with the potential benefits of the procedure (prevention of penile cancer,
STDs, AIDS, etc.), which accrue over a lifetime. Health care providers who deal
with children need to familiarize themselves with the most current literature
concerning circumcision and to be able to objectively assess it.
References